History

Past, Present and Future: How Radio Programming Adapts to Technology

Past

Radio has long been thought of as the “flexible medium” because of its ability to easily adapt. Throughout its history, radio programming has continued to evolve in order to accommodate technological changes and stay relevant. From its free-for-all form in its early days, to radio’s “Golden Age,” to the introduction of the television to the adoption of FM receivers, radio programming has continuously rediscovered the role of radio in the media world.

Programming Free for All

Austrian born inventor Nikola Tesla and Italian born Guglielmo Marconi were inventors of the earliest forms of radio. While both inventors saw the potential in the technology they were trying to create, neither saw entertainment as the focus of this new communications medium. Tesla and Marconi were working on radio with the intentions that it would serve as a one-on-one communications form for circumstances where the early telegraphs and telephones couldn’t be used. They considered their invention to be a “wireless telegraphy” – an idea that many had attempted at creating before yet hadn’t succeeded. What they were trying to create would later be called narrowcasting, meaning that these transmissions were intended for one single receiver (Schwartz.) Soon it was realized that this technology could also be used for broadcasting, or transmitting messages in all different directions, and in 1909 the first broadcasting station was constructed. For the next ten years, radio hobbyists attempted to create their own radio receivers and in 1920, the first radio station with regular broadcasts was transmitted out of the garage of Frank Conrad. This radio station, out of Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania became the first licensed radio station in the world and was later given the call letters KDKA. By 1922, there were more than 500 radio stations on the air and they were unregulated as the government had yet to control this new, quickly growing communication medium. At this time, utter chaos is what filled the airwaves as no successful model of radio programming had been established and radio was a largely experimental media form. Not only was radio an amateur industry, but broadcasters were even transmitting their audio on the same frequencies as other due to its unregulated nature. In 1927, federal regulators started to assign frequencies to broadcasters to remedy the disorder that ruled the airwaves and in 1934 the Federal Communications Commission was established.

The Golden Age of Radio

The 1920s was the first time radio was made widely available to the American public. It quickly became a significant cultural force with one million radios already in use by 1922. Even more impressive, by the close of the 1920s, more than 80% of Americans had a radio in their homes. For thirty years, the radio industry flourished and grew– to become an everyday staple in the lives of Americans. Amazingly, it was one of the few industries that were hardly affected by the Great Depression likely because it was an inexpensive way to escape reality and simply enjoy being entertained. During World War II, radio acted as an essential communication tool in addition to its role as an entertainment medium. The years between 1920 and 1950 is known as radio’s “Golden Age.” It began at the birth of radio and lasted until TV replaced radio as the dominant media form for entertainment.
At this time, the programming possibilities were endless for radio. The airwaves were filled with diverse radio shows that varied in theme including adventure, drama, comedy, thrillers, romance, mystery, concerts and commentaries. Radio programming was created with the active listener in mind. People focused on what they were hearing and used their imagination to fill in the visual gaps. Most radio shows were produced with an audio effects specialist and the actors or actresses. They were written and directed specifically with the idea that the listener was a participant who was responsible for imagining all of the visual elements that radio could not convey (Thomas). The shows were created to be an engaging form of entertainment as radio was the primary entertainment medium in American homes.
Not all radio programming was story-based. Sponsored musical features also drew wide audiences. Country music was popular and a large audience tuned into a syndicated show called National Barn Dance, which was a precursor to the famous Grand Ole Opry. Classical music-based programming also drew many listeners, as did broadcasts of the Metropolitan Opera and live jazz shows. Whether they were listening to engaging tales or immersing themselves in musical programming, audiences were active participants of radio and would focus their attentions on the medium when listening.

The Rise of Television

By the 1950s, television was gaining momentum and was quickly replacing radio as the dominant entertainment medium in American homes. Media executives started focusing on this new and innovative media and put their energies in into picture versus simple audio. Networks began to move successful radio programs over to television, as it added a visual element that the shows previously didn’t have. These shows, many of which had spent twenty years developing on radio, now allowed audiences to tune in with little imagination on their part as the story was already visually created. This shift left less attractive radio actors unemployed and led desirable radio stars to TV fame. Big names such as George Burns and Jack Benny transitioned to television and people started declaring that radio was, unfortunately, dead.
Radio programmers were forced to be creative and reinvent their content. As people began to favor television as their source of dramas, comedies and variety shows, radio broadcasting began focusing on music, talk radio, sports broadcasts and news. The radio device stayed the same, but the content being distributed over the airwaves was a completely different animal. It was unlike anything that radio programmers had ever broadcasted before (Shannon). Because listeners were no longer required to be active participants when absorbing radio shows, radio programs began to be background noise instead of entertainment that required full attention. People could listen to radio while doing chores and focusing on other things. Radio had adapted its programming to fill an entertainment gap that wasn’t being addressed instead of competing with television.

FM Radio (Frequency Modulation)

FM (Frequency Modulation) radio didn’t shake up the radio industry until the 1960s, however the idea is almost as old as radio itself. In 1902, the first patent for FM radio was issued. Edwin H. Armstrong is thought to be the inventor of FM radio as it was his work between 1928 and 1934 that made frequency modulation a practical reality. The first test FM radio stations were on in the air in 1940, however the Federal Communications Commission stopped granting applications for new FM stations during World War II.
Despite the fact that FM radio took almost a generation to take off, it had many positive features. One advantage FM radio had over AM radio was that there was less static. FM radio was also less likely to get interference from other radio stations and had higher fidelity reproduction. However, there were also disadvantages to FM radio that made it unappealing to audiences. FM radio was not accessible via regular AM radio sets and therefore users would have to buy a new receiver. As FM receivers were a new technology, they were very expensive and that put them out of reach for the general public. Radio audiences also didn’t see the need to purchase FM radio receivers as most of the programming was identical to AM radio. Radio stations would own both an AM and an FM signal and would simulcast their content. While radio would sound sharper on a new FM receiver, those who already had AM receivers weren’t missing out on anything new in terms of programming. In his book, “Seeing What’s Next,” Clayton Christensen writes about overshot customers – an idea that accurately describes radio listeners at that time. Christensen describes overshot customers as “a particular customer segment for which existing products or services are more than good enough (page 284).” Listeners didn’t respond well to FM radio because they found AM radio to be “good enough.” Because audiences were content with their AM radio and were more likely to put their money into the new, innovative television instead of an FM radio, advertisers shied away from FM radio and put their money elsewhere. Broadcasting companies lost money on their FM stations and that drastically slowed the growth of FM radio.
In 1963, everything changed. The Federal Communications Commission established the FM nonduplication rule. This meant that broadcasting companies that owned both AM and FM radio stations now had to come up with original content for each station; they were no longer allowed to simulcast their programming. As most markets were filled with AM radio stations that featured the most popular formats, radio programmers had to search for formats that were new and original. This allowed them the opportunity to take advantage of FM radio’s superior sound quality. During this time in the 1960s, rock n roll was evolving and growing in popularity. FM radio was able to reproduce the sound of electronically produced rock in a way that AM radio could not. While the number of rock-based stations were on the rise, programmers were also discovering other formats that could benefit from the clear sound of FM radio. With technological advances in music production, AM radio was now what Christensen says is “not good enough (page 294.)” The performance of AM radio no longer satisfied the needs of radio listeners. They found that contemporary music sounded better on FM and they were able to experiment on their new FM stations with other programming elements. They played longer stretches of music that were not interrupted by commercials, played full albums in their entirety and experimented with air personalities. The risks paid off as audiences started tuning into FM radio more and more. As FM receivers weren’t new anymore, the cost lowered and more listeners could access FM radio and began to notice the superior sound quality it offered. FM radio transitioned from an unpopular alternative to AM radio to becoming the more popular and preferred medium. By 1979, FM led AM radio in market shares.
This transition resulted in several shifts in programming that are still relevant today. First, radio programmers began to respond to targeted audiences’ desires and conducted research in order to accommodate them. This research helped them choose appropriate music, decide the appropriate type of advertising not to mention how to accurately brand the radio station with jingles, liners and on-air personalities. Second, syndicated programming increased in popularity. At this point, radio programmers became crucial in creating a solid radio brand. They had to know how to conduct critical research in addition to having a creative mind and intuition for what would draw listeners. The most talented programmers were in high demand and therefore radio stations were willing to air syndicated radio shows in order to air the quality content that these programmers produced. Lastly, the roles that AM and FM radio played were established at that time. Because of the crisp, static-free sound of FM radio channels, music became the format of choice for FM stations. FM radio became the home for any type of music where quality of sound was important such as rock, country, classical, jazz and top 40. Lower quality music such as nostalgia and old standards tended to broadcast over AM as did talk shows, news reports and sports (Ostroff.)

Satellite Radio

In the early 2000s, radio was faced with the introduction of another technology that made people wonder, once again, if radio was dead. Satellite radio, also known as subscription radio, is different from terrestrial radio in that it is broadcast by a communications satellite. This means that the same audio content is available across the entire United States, which is appealing to listeners who have a strong loyalty to particular channels or on-air talent. The signal is also very strong and can cover areas that terrestrial radio generally cannot such as rural areas. Because satellite radio is subscription based, generally starting at around $12.95 a month, most satellite radio channels are commercial-free. The absence of advertising combined with the large variety of available radio formats worried those who feared terrestrial radio could not compete with the benefits of satellite radio.
On September 25, 2001 XM Satellite Radio was launched in the United States. Less than a year later, Sirius Satellite radio launched on July 1, 2002. In February of 2007, both of these companies merged to become Sirius XM Radio. With over 18.5 million users, Sirius XM Radio has seen substantial success. Similar to the way early TV attracted radio stars who left radio programming to pursue the newer communication medium, satellite radio has caused big-name radio stars to abandon terrestrial radio in favor of this newer innovation. Well-known terrestrial radio stars such as Howard Stern and Bubba the Love Sponge moved to satellite radio, taking many of their listeners with them. SM Sirius also drew stars that previously were not on the radio such as Tony Hawk, Martha Stewart and Oprah Winfrey. Satellite radio certainly had numerous advantages that could draw listeners away from terrestrial radio but the core question was what makes people listen to terrestrial radio and do those reasons apply to satellite radio?
In the article “Determining Uses and Gratifications for the Internet,” the writer explains that “uses and gratifications (U&G) is a media use paradigm from mass communications research that guides the assessment of consumer motivations for media usage and access.” The uses and gratifications of satellite radio was researched and presented in the article “What Happened to our Audience? Radio and New Technology Uses and Gratifications Among Young Adult Users.” In this study, young adults were surveyed as the 18-24 age group is the most likely to adopt new media.
The article sites an earlier U & G study conducted in 1964 that measured uses and gratifications of terrestrial radio. That study found several motives that caused people to tune into radio including companionships, filling a void created by daily routine, altering mood, relieving boredom, providing news and information, allowing active participation in events and overcoming social isolation. In a later study conducted in 1983, the only listening motivation that was identified in a survey of college students was killing time.
The article revealed “most radio audiences perceive satellite radio as a distinctive media separate from terrestrial radio delivering dissimilar types on content.” This meant that listeners didn’t see satellite radio as a new and improved version of traditional radio, but as a completely different medium all together. It showed that listeners valued the one thing that makes terrestrial radio stand apart: the ability to localize it’s content. This means that terrestrial radio stations are able to talk specifically about a listener’s area in regards to news, weather and traffic not to mention local events and cultural happenings in the area. The number of people in the surveyed group that had a subscription to satellite radio was surprisingly low. Satellite radio is generally not marketed towards young adults and this age group generally cannot afford the subscription fee. Although satellite radio provided an alternative to terrestrial radio, it was not yet drawing enough of an audience to warrant a programming reinvention (Albarran).
The study concluded that although satellite radio hasn’t particularly affected terrestrial radio’s audience, the industry is facing other challenges such as Mp3 players and streaming Internet radio, which will be addressed in the present and future portion of this paper. The study notes that while traditional radio has survived many challenges from new technologies and has always continued to thrive, the way audiences listen to music is beginning to change and that it is time for radio programmers to proactively think about what comes next. Although satellite radio hasn’t had a strong impact on traditional radio, other technologies are breaking through and the radio industry must prove, once again, that it is not dead.

Conclusion

Throughout it’s history, radio has continued to mold itself in order to accommodate industry threats and it’s success is attributed to this flexibility. From the chaos of early, unregulated radio to the audio theater of radio’s “Golden Age” to the music programming of the post-television era to the musical revolution of FM radio, the industry has adapted in order to keep itself relevant. Although radio has continued to survive despite the technological advances during the last century, newer technologies are being developed at a staggering pace, unlike any other time in history. Radio is a staple in American culture but cannot depend on its past successes to guide them into the future. The industry must continue to evolve, as it always has, in order to remain a dominant source of entertainment in the lives of the American people and all over the world.

References

Albarran, A., Horst, J., Khalaf, T., Lay, J., McCracken, M., Mott, B., Way, H., Anderson, T., Bejar, L., Bussart, A., Daggett, E., Gibson, S., Gorman, M., Greer, D. & Guo, M. (November 2007). What Happened to our Audience? Radio and New Technology Uses and Gratifications Among Young Adult Users. Journal of Radio Studies, 14, 2. Retrieved from EBSCO: http://web.ebscohost.com.offcampus.lib.washington.edu/ehost/pdf?vid=8&hid=5&sid=85b867fc-a072-482a-8a78-298ca7eb1a60%40sessionmgr4 DOI: 10.1080/10955040701583171

Christensen, C. (2004). Seeing What’s Next: Using the Theories of Innovation to Predict Industry Change. Boston, MA: Harvard Business School Publishing.

Ostroff, D., Wright, J. (1998) Perspectives on Radio and Television. Telecommunications in the United States. London, England. Retrieved from: http://books.google.com/books?id=6TB4bDZ7KxkC&pg=PA583&lpg=PA583&dq=history+of+non-commercial+radio&source=web&ots=n-sfxyg4nH&sig=9iAqFf_4Fb36HXh4YYAt07xB9J4&hl=en&ei=RSONScH_CpGUsAO6yPT-CA&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=2&ct=result#PPA584,M1

Sample, W. (February 1960.) Do They Really Listen to Radio? Today’s Speech, 8, 1. Retrieved from EBSCO: http://web.ebscohost.com.offcampus.lib.washington.edu/ehost/pdf?vid=2&hid=5&sid=1bed6b7a-58ec-4c03-adfa-a1adf564f5fb%40sessionmgr14

Schwartz, E. (2002). The Last Lone Inventor: A Tale of Genius, Deceit, and the Birth of Television. New York, NY: HarperCollins.

Shannon, B. (2009). Turn It Up! American Radio Tales 1946-1996. Bainbridge Island, WA: Austrianmonk Publishing.

Stafford, T., Stafford, M. & Schkade, L., (2004). Determining Uses and Gratifications for the Internet. Decision Sciences. Retrieved from: http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qa3713/is_200404/ai_n9398988/

Sterling, C. & Keith, M. (2008). Sounds of Change: A History of FM Broadcasting in America. Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press.

Thomas, S. (2007). A ‘Star’ of the Airwaves: Peter Lorre – ‘Master of the Macabre’ and American Radio Programming. The Radio Jounral – International Studies in Broadcast and Audio Media, 5, 2&3. DOI: 10.1386/rajo.5.2&3.143/1. Retrieved from EBSCO: http://web.ebscohost.com.offcampus.lib.washington.edu/ehost/pdf?vid=12&hid=5&sid=85b867fc-a072-482a-8a78-298ca7eb1a60%40sessionmgr4